The temptress as a figure has existed since before the creation of Eve. The temptress figure can be admired for her beauty, feared for the lure of her temptations, and sometimes both. In Homer’s Odyssey, the Siren seduces men with their storytelling to the point that sailors crash and sink to their deaths (Cook 135), and the Apsara named Tilottama from Vyasa’s Mahabharata brought about the destruction of the demon brothers Sunsa and Upasunda through her beauty (Vyasa 392). Apsaras are “celestial singers and dancers who, together with the gandharvas, or celestial musicians, inhabit the heaven of the god Indra, the lord of the heavens.” There were also originally water nymphs (“Apsara.”). Christianity also has its own temptresses: the Romanian Swan-Maiden’s beauty make a prince fall instantly in love with her (Anonymous 256). These beings have the ability to shape-shift between bird and human form in one of two ways: either of their own free will by means of a magical garment, or by a secret magical condition, such as a lover promising to never break a specific promise or taboo” (“Swan Maidens”).The latter being the case in Gaster’s translated Christmas Carol, “The Swan Maiden, The Bird of Heaven, and The Crown of Paradise.” There is also the German Lorelei, whose voice is so wondrous, it leads men to their deaths (“Lore Lay”). For the analysis of the Lorelei, I look at Brentano’s “Lore Lay” with some use of Heine’s “The Lorelei.”   Thirdly, there is the Rusalka, which has a more complicated history, as it is “rooted in the dual heritage of paganism and Orthodox Christianity” (Douviko 1), effectively making her a liminal character which changes in appearance and moral alignment depending on the region in and around Russia (32). Erben’s “The Water Sprite” as well as supplementary folktales from Ivanits’ Russian Folk Belief will be analyzed.

            These five mythical creatures, though set against different cultures, spaces, and times hold similarities. They are mythical beings that are all only female who seduce using their voice and beauty, often with a connection to nature. However, there are significant differences between how the actions and overall sexuality of these temptresses are portrayed. I hypothesize that the contributing factor and influence of the actions and views placed on the temptresses’ sexuality is the socio-historical context of the piece. Those pieces that have their basis in Christianity, namely, the Swan-Maiden and Lorelei, employ passive temptresses in terms of their actions and sexuality: acted upon and only in relationship to the surrounding men rather than granted agency as an individual, meaning they take up restricting roles such as virgin, whore, mother, or daughter. The polytheistic religions prevalent in the Odyssey and Mahabharata grant the temptresses’ agency both in action and their sexuality, meaning they are not defined only by their role as temptress or by any other female specific roles listed above. Hellenistic polytheism and Hinduism allow for other female characters in their respective works, meaning that a more varied portrayal of women can appear, with the added distinction of women being able to be gods, and thus equal to men in terms of power within the religion. The temptress is also reflective of what men admire—or fear—about women.

            It is important to first date the primary sources as a way to determine not only the prevalent religious influence in each work, but also to determine how women in their contemporary times were perceived socio-politically in conjunction with how they are portrayed in the literature. The Odyssey was most likely written near the end of the eight century BC, with obvious influences from the era of the Trojan War, which would have taken place around the twelfth or thirteenth century BC. The Mahabharata reached its final form by the early Gupta period, around fourth century CE (though the origins of the epic probably falls between the eighth and ninth centuries BCE), but its main storyline details the Kurukshetra War which is believed to have taken place between 600 BCE and 500 BCE, namely the Vedic Period. The religious influences are also explicit within these two texts, with gods and other significant characters of the religion being present within the texts. The Odyssey has Zeus, Poseidon, Athena, Circe, and Calypso while the Mahabharata has Kunti, Pandu, Ganhardi, Dhritrashtra, and Krishnaa, just to name a few.

            With that in mind, what was the status of women in these polytheistic religion-influenced cultures at the time?   Within the Greek Pantheon, goddesses are by no means subordinate, but between the era in which the gods would have recorded to now, there has been a decline in the representation of the feminine in favour of the masculine (Brulé 7). For women seeking roles in religion in Ancient Greece, they were given equal opportunity when compared to men (17). However, when it came to the position of the average woman’s sexuality, there was less equality: it was considered better by males to love a boy than a woman because it is better to be masculine (91). The Odyssey shows this clearly in looking at the mortal women characters, as their significance is in direct relation to the men in their lives, such as Penelope, Odysseus’ faithful wife. How about the religious and sexual position of women in Ancient India? Much of the influences for the Mahabharata come from the Vedic ages where “it seems women enjoyed equal rights with men. The wife and husband being equal halves of one substance” (Indra 2). In fact, 

             in the Epic literature these lofty ideals [of respect] do not seem to be quite extinct. They have been repeated time and again in that                  grandest of the epics—the Mahabharata. It enjoins on all, to honour women because the virtues of men depend on women and                         because all pleasures and enjoyments also entirely depend on them. Further, women are said to be the deities of prosperity. (6-7)

            This shows that women were often venerated within early Indian culture, but one could argue that the idealization of motherhood (7) could equally peg women to singular roles as mother or virgin just as much as viewing them as subordinate. The attitudes of the contemporary culture at the time is echoed in their respective texts: the Sirens of Homer are seen as evil for the knowledge they instill because it tempts men to their deaths while Tilottama is praised for her actions as temptress (Vyasa 398). We begin to see the contrasting poles of the temptress here as something to be feared or admired. Fast forward almost two millennia to the Christian texts, and still there are signs of feminine subordination.  

            Detailing the precise dates for the Swan Maiden, Lorelei, and Rusalka is slightly more difficult because of the nature of folkore, but no less apparent. Rumanian Bird and Beast Stories was translated and published in 1915, and is the first appearance of such tales outside of Romania (Anonymous 1). The Swan Maiden tale and motif was a very popular study in folklore during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, which places the Swan Maiden piece in that era. One can presume that “The Water Sprite” originated in the 19^th century due to the view portrayed in “Water Sprite” with there being a blending line between what was considered “nechisaia sila”, in which the devil personified and many nature spirits, including the Rusalka, were a part of the same concept (Ivanits 38). Finally, “Lore Lay” comes from the romance Godwi, which was written in between 1801-1802. The influences of religion are slightly less obvious in the Christian texts, but no less apparent. “The Swan Maiden, The Bird of Heaven and The Crown of Paradise” is a Christmas Carol for example, and we can tell the intended purpose of the text is Christian because of the presence of St. John: “Who was his sponsor?/Who but St. John,/Who stood sponsor to Jesus” (Gaster 257). In “Lore Lay”, the titular character begs a bishop to help her escape her sinful ways, and his reaction is to order her to a nunnery (“Lore Lay”), and as mentioned before, the Rusalka has a mix of pagan and Orthodox Christian roots, making it a concept of contention, a central piece between the polytheistic and monotheistic works.  

            The Christian works and the cultures surrounding them are all placed in Europe. The Swan Maiden text comes from the twentieth century and the Ruaslka and Lorelei texts come from the nineteenth century. Though the sexism is less blatant than that experienced by women in Ancient Greece as compared to today, these two centuries were nonetheless difficult for women. Nineteenth century Europe saw fear in women’s sexuality, with the men of the time arguing that women’s very biology and sexuality meant they were destined to become mothers and stay in the home, taking care of their husbands and children. However, within the last few decades of the nineteenth century saw women begin to understand their concepts of “self” with their control of reproduction and sexuality (Fuchs 34). Sex became a highly contested topic at the turn of the nineteenth century into the twentieth century, partly because the Women’s Movement began to question the moralizing double standard apparent between gender lines (Herzog 6). As such, there was an increase in sexual liberation for women, but this was not without a multitude of backlashes against the movement (1). Sexuality was also a key component to “secularization and religious renewal [. . .], economic growth, [. . .], and increasing government-citizen negotiation” (3). In short, the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in Europe were tumultuous times that saw increasing progress and pushback for women’s status, in a time when women’s status was changing and yet to be fully defined.        

         It is important to note the socio-historical place of women within their respective texts as well as the genre they inhabit. The women are thus placed in context of a culture and a time in history in which the primary sources were written. Knowing the context in which these female characters are written allows readers to analyze how their contemporary status is reflected in the text. For example, though Ancient Greek society gave women rigid, restrictive roles, a character such as Penelope, though labelled primarily as Odysseus’ wife, is also important in the overall context of the piece. This concept is not seen in “The Water Sprite,” in which the secondary female character, the mother, has no effect on the overall storyline, and no characterization outside her role as mother, giving her no agency when compared to Penelope. The position of women in 19^th century Europe was also subordinate and rigid, as it was in Ancient Greece, but there is a clear difference between how female characters are portrayed. One could argue that the pieces used for the polytheistic texts are not only longer—thus allowing for more development of more characters—but the aspects of religion present in the Odyssey and Mahabharata are more obvious and explicit than the religious themes in the Christian texts, which are more implied. The Christian texts come from folk tales, which are much shorter, include less characters, and often contain moral lessons. Not to mention that the Christian texts are significantly younger than the epic texts.  However, the epic and folkloric genres both have their place in the oral tradition, and so in their purest forms have similar origins. There is of course, also the fact that I am working in translated texts, which erases some of the original cultural meanings of the original language and peer-reviewed sources can be hard to find. It could be argued that comparing the epics of the Odyssey and the Mahabharata against the more simplistic and shorter Christmas carols, folk tales, and poem gives the polytheistic texts an unfair advantage, but that is why I have used supplementary materials for some of the Christian temptresses. In analyzing the socio-historical place of women in their respective times and cultures, there is an overall similarity of women being seen as inferior in terms of mental and physical capabilities and regimented into feminine roles such as mother, daughter, etc. If the general position of women is restricted, similarities between these many different incarnations will appear.             

            These temptresses appear in different incarnations across time and culture, but there are many similarities these “Siren-type” creatures have in common. One thing these temptresses share is the fact that their defining trait tends to be their beauty. Consider first how the “birth” of Tilottama is described:

            First [Visvakarman] from everywhere with great care whatever is beautiful in all three worlds, whether standing or moving, and                          placed these gems, which numbered by the millions, into her body. [. . .] There was not the tiniest bit of her body that was not                            perfectly lovely or failed the hold the eye of the beholder. She, like Sri embodied, desirable and beautiful, carried off the glances and                hearts of all beings. (Vyasa 396)

            She was so beautiful, that when the gods looked at her Sthanu grew four faces and Indra spouted a thousand eyes, so they could look at her in every direction (392). This trend carries on in the Christian temptresses as well, with the women being defined by their looks. Like Tilottama, the man that spies the Swan Maiden falls in love with her upon first sight because of her beauty and immediately wants to wed her: “The king’s son, as soon as he saw her,/Was wounded at his heart,/And spake as follows:/O thou white fairy,/O thou beautiful swan,/I will bathe thee in a bath of white milk,/So that thou shouldst not be able to depart” (Gaster 256). The focus is primarily on the aesthetic, on the physical body, rather than other traits the Swan Maiden may have to offer. The Lorelei also is described as such: “She was so beautiful and fine,/and seduced many hearts./And she brought many men/to shame all around her;/From her love’s bindings/there was no rescue” (“Lore Lay”). The Rusalka and Swan Maiden both have the ability to change their form. As the Swan Maiden explains to her prince: “Young son of kings,/I will not be bathed,/For I am not a white swan,/But the fairy from heaven/From the gate of Paradise” (Gaster 256). The version of the Rusalka from the Khar’kov province is able to turn into birds: “suddenly a whole flock of rusalki in the form of birds attacked a peasant” (Ivanits 186). These quotes show, in a less direct way, that the appearance of the temptress is paramount, as her power to change in her appearance aids in her seduction or attack on the common folk, namely, men. The focus on the temptress’ appearances, especially in the case of the Christian temptresses, shows them to be objects: passive creatures who are acted upon and admired rather than subjects. The temptress is beautiful, but in the formulaic way of the oral tradition for easy memorization rather than for creating unique individuality and characterization. These formulaic descriptions connect the temptresses not only to the oral tradition, but also to the time and place they were written, as the oral tradition is a commonality of early culture which the epics and folktales are a part of. An important question to ask is, how does each temptress “use” or “not use” this formulaic beauty?  

            A recurring theme appears in which it is the beauty of the women that is at fault for the way men act around her. Lorelei’s beauty, or “evil witchcraft” (“Lore Lay”), as well as Tilottama’s beauty, is the cause of men becoming lustful, not the men themselves. Lorelei is not using her beauty here, it is merely the catalyst for a man’s response, making her passive. When it comes to the Rusalki, it is more difficult to capture their sense of beauty because there are many incarnations of this temptress. “The Water Sprite” offers no sense of what the Rusalka’s appearance may be, other than “young” (Erben 115), but there are many folktales that do include her appearance. In one folktale from the Samara region, “the beautiful young widow Marina” falls in love with a man who marries another, drowns herself out of grief, and comes back as a Rusalka (Ivanits 188-189). The only temptress that does not have her appearance explicitly mentioned is the Siren in the Odyssey. That reason is because her form of temptation is not her appearance: “The Sirens—as it drew near, they struck up a clear-toned song:/‘Come near, much praised Odysseus, the Achaians’ great glory;/Bring your ship in, so you may listen to our voice’” (Cook 135). The Sirens’ temptation is with their voice, which will tell stories and give knowledge (135). The Ancient Greek man’s fear of woman, or more explicitly, the potential of woman to have knowledge that men lack, thus means women could not only be at least equal to them, but have the ability to seduce them as well. With women having knowledge and the ability to seduce, they could be participators in society and culture as well as in what was traditionally seen as “the man’s place.” 

            With the Siren’s song in mind, proficency in the arts are also a commonality many of the temptresses share. The Siren uses music, which is part of their lure. Though Tilottama does seduce the demon brothers Sunda and Upsunda through the arts (Vyasa 397), as the Apsaras were “celestial singers and dancers” (“Apsara”). The Lorelei shows a connection with the Siren by also being a temptress that leads men to their death through song in “The Lorelei” by Heinrich Heine: “I think the waves will devour/The boatman and boat as one;/And this by her song’s sheer power/Fair Lorelei has done” (“The Lorelei”). The lure, or temptation, in connection with the arts suggests a fear for the creative, as opposed to the rational nature of science: these temptresses defy science, which is part of their lure.

            Nature stands opposite culture and science. In the dichotomy of gender, men have always been placed next to civilization and logic, and women nature and emotion. Many of these temptresses have an association with nature. The Sirens were in “their meadow full of flowers” by the sea (Cook 134), and Tilottama was physically made from gems (Vyasa 396). This trend also extends to the Christian temptresses: the Swan Maiden, as the name implies, is a shape shifting fairy that can turn into a bird (Gaster 256), and Lorelei says this before committing suicide “Oh knights, let me go/to the top of this great cliff,/I would once more look on/my love’s castle./I would once more look/deep into the Rhine/and then go to the cloister/to become God’s bride.” (“Lore Lay”), showing a specific connection to the Rhine. The Rusalka also has an intimate relationship with nature, as shown in “The Water Sprite”: “She’s so restless, restless daughter,/something draws her to the water” (Erben 115). One could ask, what is the significance of these temptresses’ connection to nature, specifically water?  Doubviko states:

            They all inhabit the feminine domain of water, a place of mystery and pleasure, “the ebb and flow of female cycles, the realms of                        conception and birth, and male heterosexual satisfaction” (Austern and Naroditskaya 4).

            Thus, the dangers linked to water become  metaphors for the dangers of the feminine realm, as examined by Simone de Beauvoir in the Second Sex. (43) Water is a place of mystery, and therefore also represebts the fear of the unknown. This mystery that the temptresses have is also part of their lure: they are a mystery, they have some element that men do not possess themselves, and thus men are drawn to them. This shows the men in these texts to both admire what they do not know, as they praise the temptresses’ beauty, but also fear it, as they placed blame on many of the temptresses for that same beauty. These similarities are important to note, because it shows that the temptress is a universal figure that defies space, time and culture. She is almost universally female, and is associated with the arts and nature while also generally interacting with men. With the temptress being a universal figure, one must look at the cultural and socio-historical context, and noting that women across these cultures have been seen as subordinate and inferior to men, religion becomes a major difference between the texts, especially in terms of how they are viewed sexually.               

           Though I have referred to the creatures we are studying throughout this essay as “temptresses”, a significant component to analyzing whether or not these temptresses have agency is to separate them from men and sexuality to show that they are not only defined as temptresses. The Siren and Lorelei are viewed as enemies to men, so it is important to analyze what makes their temptation negative compared to that of the Swan Maiden and Apsara. As mentioned above, the Siren’s lure is not based on appearance, and thus it is not a sexual lure in which the Siren attacks men. Her lure, is through her song:

            ‘Come near, much-praised Odysseus, the Achaians’ great glory
            For we know all the man things that in broad Troy
            The Argives and the Trojans suffered at the will of the gods.
            We know all that comes to be on the much-nourishing earth.’
            So they said, sending their lovely voice out. (Cook 135)

            The Siren is not defined simply by their role of temptress because her song shows she have knowledge. They are intelligent creatures, with abilities that set them against men rather than in relationship to them. The Lorelei is very similar to the Siren, as they both use the lure of music. However, the influence of religion becomes apparent when Lorelei kills herself rather than join a convent. Lorelei is, first of all, blamed for men’s infatuation with her, it being labeled “witchcraft” (“Lore Lay”). This makes her a passive temptress because she is not actively trying to seduce the men: “Near Bacharach on the Rhine/lived a witch./She was so beautiful and fine,/and seduced many hearts./And she brought many men/to shame all around her;/From her love’s bindings/there was no rescue” (“Lore Lay”). Lorelei does not lure the men on her own free will, showing she has no agency as a temptress. Even in Heine’s poem “The Lorelei”, after her suicide, Lorelei is shown to be nothing but a temptress. Only her beauty is discussed with nothing of the nature of what makes her song alluring. It is only described as “powerful” while more detail is taken into account about her beauty: “The fairest of maidens is sitting/So marvelous up there,/ Her golden jewels are shining,/ She’s combing her golden hair” (“The Lorelei”). Thus, unlike the polytheistic-inspired Siren, the Christian Lorelei is solely defined as a temptress. The respective cultures surrounding the Siren and the Lorelei both show them as enemies, and both these cultures viewed women as subordinate. However, the Siren is seen as a negative figure because she opposes men; the Siren kills men with active planning and thought. Lorelei, on the other hand, is viewed as negative because she is helpless towards men. Both characters oppose men, but the Siren opposes men by being like a man: she is powerful and has knowledge, which was not a role expected of women. Lorelei opposes men because she is opposite to men: she is helpless while men are powerful.  

            Tilottama and the Swan Maiden are considered “good temptresses”, but are they defined by that role? Tilottama was created for the sole purpose of breaking up brothers who threatened destruction (Vyasa 392), but it is in how she is treated after she succeeds in her initial goal to figure out if she is defined solely by her primary purpose: “then, the Grandfather, pleased, said to her, ‘You shall have the run of the worlds that are roamed by the Adityas, radiant maiden. And because of your luster no one will bear to look upon you for long!’” (398). Though this quote illustrates that Tilottama cannot stay still for long because of Man’s lust for her, she is given free rein of the world at her leisure, and will appear in later parts of the Mahabharata. The Swan Maiden on the other hand, is not your typical temptress. Unlike the temptresses discussed above, she does not promise carnal pleasure or knowledge, but marriage. The Swan Maiden is “sent by God,/selected by God” (Gaster 256) to accomplish this task. This draws similarities to Tilottama, as both her and the Swan Maiden are sent by a higher masculine deity, but after the prince returns with the bird of heaven and the crown of paradise, the ending of the story is that they are wed: “And this young bride/With golden tresses/That shone like the sun’s rays,/Together with her groom,/Young and brave,/May they live/For many years/With happy cheer and with health,/Together with their brothers/And with their parents” (256-258). The Swan Maiden is thus defined as a temptress throughout the text and her significance is only important in relation to the prince, who was the true protagonist of this story. Therefore, both Tilottama and the Swan Maiden act within actions instructed by a male character, making them positive temptresses as they do not go against or opposite male dominance. The perspective in which a temptress is viewed, whether they be viewed as negative, positive, or neutral, is important as this reflects how their respective societies viewed them. For example, the Siren is viewed as a negative character because she is powerful, like men, in a time when women were not supposed to ascribe to power. Tilottama is a positively viewed temptress, but she acts at the behest of a more powerful male deity, as does the Swan Maiden. However, the Swan Maiden is more of an object to be won by the prince, rather than an individual with a moral alignment.       

            The Rusalka is portrayed as evil and as good. “The Water Sprite” shows a Rusalka that marries a water sprite, which could be a symbol for the devil personified (Ivanits 38), showing her to be the victim rather than the enemy. In this incarnation, she is clearly defined through her sexuality, even if she was the one lured and tempted (Erben 115). She is never given a name throughout “The Water Sprite”; She is only ever referred to as “young girl” (115), “daughter” (115), and sometimes “wife” (119). All of these roles place the Rusalka in relation to others, particularly men. Other incarnations see Rusalki as vengeful spirits that kill for minor infractions, such as working on Rusalka day or as babies that died unbaptized (Ivanits 186-187); they can be tricksters of more mischievous intent, like putting out campfires (187); they can bewitch peasants so they have such a passion for the Rusalka that they will kill themselves to save her (187-188); and Rusalki can even have names, as is the case of the “beautiful young widow Marina” who drowned herself when her beloved married another (188-189). These incarnations are vast and do not define the Rusalka simply by her sexuality or her connection to men. This variety of incarnations cements the fact that religion can be a great influence of the role of temptress, and women in general in folklore. The Rusalka’s mixed roots are clear here, as not all incarnations of the Rusalka can even be defined as temptresses, but monsters or tricksters. “The Water Sprite” however, has clear Christian roots warning about the lure of the devil. Like the Siren, the Rusalka refers to a race of temptresses, but a big difference between these two races is that the text the Siren comes from has diverse female characters while the many short folktales of the Rusalka do not. Thus, the Rusalka may come in many different incarnations: temptress, monster, unbaptized baby, trickster, but she and other women in rusalka folktales—if they are even present—are rigid within those roles.  

            Now that it has been acknowledged which temptresses are not merely defined by their primary role—that being the Siren, the Apsara Tilottama, and in some instances, the Rusalka—it is important to analyze the other women characters (or lack thereof) portrayed within the primary texts. This expands the figure of the temptress to the rest of her respective text, and gives a more overarching view of women being defined only by their connection with men. This analyzes the other labels the temptress, and other women in the works, may possess. Are they defined by their womanhood by only acting in a role of virgin, mother, wife, etc.? Female characters can be in these roles, such as Penelope being Odysseus’ wife, but, it is more of a question if she has agency in her role: does she act on her own volition separate from what men might expect of her? Penelope may be famous for remaining faithful to Odysseus for the nearly twenty years he was gone, but she is much more than that. She is also “mother to Telemachus, the mistress of her husband’s ‘house’ [. . .] and – is this merely secondary? A peerless weaver” (Brulé 65). While Penelope is “only” a woman, she manages to run Odysseus’ household while he is gone while caring for Telemachus and fending off suitors, which she does by promising them that she will choose one of them to marry after she completes her weaving of a shroud of Laertes, but undoes her weaving at night (Lattimore 42). Though Penelope fits into the rigid roles of a woman such as wife, mother, and potential lover, she is equal to Odysseus in terms of her craftiness. Immortal women, such as Athena, also play a large role in the Odyssey, as she is the one who sides against Poseidon to see Odysseus home, though she has no blood relation to him and therefore her importance it not merely her connection to him or other men (29). The Mahabharata also hosts many female characters. McGrath suggests that “women in the poem, although not agent in the way male heroes are, participate in heroic culture in a manner that is intrinsic to their affiliation” (77). Kunti, for example, has been restrained and controlled in her life, but due to pure diligence, she received the power to summon any deity to her person and control him (81). Damayanti’s story is a parable about the dangers of gambling and how she saves her husband from this misfortune (100). Thus, just because a character is in the role of wife, or any other role typically prescribed to women, does not automatically define them by that role. Damayanti is set in opposition to her husband as strong and irreproachable. She is not ferocious as her husband Draupadi is, but it is Damayanti’s love that redeems him in the end (100). These examples are just a few of the female characters that are present in both the Odyssey and Mahabharata.   

            The diversity of female characters in the primary texts show that the temptresses, as women, are not simply defined by their role as temptresses because there is a variety of female characterization and roles being used. The lack of diversity in the Christian texts only works to widen the gap between the Christian and polytheistic works in terms of character agency. In “The Swan Maiden, The Bird of Heaven, and The Crown of Paradise” the Swan Maiden is the only woman present in the text, as Lorelei is the only woman present in hers as well. While there may be women and girls in the Russian Folk Belief stories, they are not given names, like the Rusalki themselves, making them anonymous non-characters. “The Water Sprite” does have another female character within it. She is a character in the periphery, but has speaking lines and is of a matter of importance to our main Rusalka. The Rusalka’s mother—she is never given a name besides mother—is the driving force that the Rusalka has for trying to leave the water sprite: “ ‘I’ve begged a hundred times –/each day I plead and cry –/to see my mother once more,/bid her last goodbye” (Erben 122). This quote stands at the intersection of its Christian and Pagan roots, as the mother is being defined by her femininity, but in relation to another woman, and not a man. This exclusion of men from the girl and mother’s domestic life is out of character for a Christian text, and perhaps the reason the young girl felt such a strong lure to the water and ultimately, a husband in the devil. Another intersection the Ruslka stands at is whether she as active agency or not.

            In the end, the polytheistic temptresses have agency and actively act as temptresses and the Christian ones are passive. The Sirens and Tilottama are certainly active while the Lorelei and Swan Maiden are not. The subject of the Rusalka’s agency is up for debate depending on which incarnation one analyzes. The Sirens are active temptresses. As mentioned above, their appearance is not mentioned, and in the place of it, it is their knowledge they convey through song that lures men to the deaths. This displays agency in the tempting, and thus making their actions active, in contrast to the Lorelei. However similar she is to the Ancient Greek Sirens, it is not her knowledge or any other non-physical attribute that is her lure. From the beginning of “Lore Lay” it is made abundantly clear that men are lured by her beauty, and nothing else: “She was so beautiful and fine,/and seduced many hearts./And she brought many men/to shame all around her” (“Lore Lay”). Beauty is not something a person can actively use. Lorelei is not actively seeking to seduce men. One could argue that Tilottama is passive because the Grandfather had her created for the sole purpose of seducing the demon brothers, but Tilottama chooses in which way she will seduce them: “it was then that Tilottama appeared, plucking flowers in the woods, in a suggestive dress of one red piece of cloth” (Vyasa 397). The attire Tilottama wears shows conscious thought in her seduction, as she chooses a dress described as “suggestive” to evoke a reaction from the brothers. The Swan Maiden, as mentioned before, is similar to Tilottama in the regard that she was sent by a (presumably) masculine God to fulfill a purpose. The Swan Maiden however, shows no conscious thought in attempting to lure the prince, with the prince falling in love with her beauty on first sight (Gaster 256). Like the Lorelei, the Swan maiden passively lures her “prey” rather than actively seeking it out. In “The Water Sprite,” the Rusalka is completely passive. She is in fact, the one tempted and lured, not the other way around, shown here by the water sprite’s words: “‘Green suit, with boots of cherry,/tomorrow I will marry’” (Erben 114). The many short folktales displayed in Russian Folk Belief show quite the opposite, with rusalki fiercely attacking, sometimes in groups (Ivanits 186), which shows effort and planning in wanting to mean harm. The place of the Rusalka in between Christianity and paganism only cements the fact that religion has a large effect on the perception of the temptresses as the mixed roots as created varying, often contradictory, variations of the Rusalka. The agency of the temptress does not seem the main focus of these texts however, but the end result is in how it effects men.                       

            There is a clear line drawn between which temptresses are defined only as temptresses and which of those have agency. The representation of other women in the texts only further concretizes the multi-faceted role of the temptress in the polytheistic Odyssey and Mahabharata because they show that the women in them are not merely defined by their male counterparts. The Sirens and Tilottama show active effort in trying to tempt men while also performing actions outside their mandated roles. The same cannot be said for the Christian Swan Maiden and Lorelei, whose lives are dictated by the men—divine or not—around them and whose lure is merely their appearance, restricting them to the role of temptress. The Rusalka presents an intersection in which one can analyze where Christianity and paganism may have intersected and how they may be similar and different. Similarities spread across these temptresses regardless of the religion in which they inspired, showing a clear universal of what a temptress is. It is the religious or cultural context in which literature takes place that says something greater about the culture itself. What we as modern readers of these epics and folktales about temptresses can take away is what men fear most about the “fairer” sex: they fear their admiration of woman’s bodies, which they see as having a “power” over them. The female body is a form of art, and female sexuality is for the men of these times a mystery and curiosity. A curiosity that has such allure, it leads them to destruction whether by a woman’s choice or not.